Forest Fires | Natural Risk

Forest fires and wildfires are very common in many places around the world. Forested areas are particularly susceptible to wildfires, especially where climates are sufficiently moist to allow the growth of trees but feature extended dry or hot periods. Forest fires are particularly prevalent in the summer and fall, as well as during droughts when fallen branches, leaves, and other material can dry out and become highly flammable. Wildfires are also common in grasslands and scrublands and are most severe on days with strong winds, which help increase the tempo and intensity of fires. Forest fires present significant risks to urban areas bordering forested or grassland areas, as well as facilities and travelers caught in the fire's path. Forest fires fall into three basic categories:

1.  Wildfire.: An unplanned and unwanted fire, including unauthorized human‐caused fires, escaped wild land fire use events, escaped prescribed fire projects, and all other wild land fires.

2.  Wild Land Fire Use.: The application of the appropriate management response to naturally ignited wild land fires to accomplish specific resource management objectives in predefined designated areas.

3.  Prescribed Fire.: Any fire ignited by management actions to meet specific objectives.

The common causes for such fires include human carelessness, arson, volcanoes, heat waves, drought, lightning, and industrial accidents. The effects can be devastating and can quickly overwhelm emergency responders attempting to extinguish the fires. The propagation of a fire has three mechanisms that managers should be aware of (if operating within regions susceptible to forest fires):

1.  Crawling Fire.: A fire that spreads via low‐level vegetation (e.g., bushes, grass, and scrub).

2.  Crown Fire.: A fire that spreads across the top branches of trees. Crown fires can spread at an incredible pace through the top of a forest. They can be extremely dangerous to all inhabitants underneath, as they may spread too fast to be outrun, particularly on windy days.

3.  Jumping Fire.: A fire that produces burning branches and leaves that are carried by the wind to start distant fires. A jumping fire can be carried over roads, rivers, or even firebreaks.

The IMP should be designed to support companies whose facilities or work sites operate within regions that suffer from forest fires. Prior to a forest fire event, companies should undertake the following measures as part of their contingency planning phase:

§  Consult with your local fire department regarding the measures required to make the facility more fire resistant.

§  Check for and remove fire hazards in and around the facility, such as dried‐out branches, leaves, and debris.

§  Develop fire response plans and rehearse these with personnel and local authorities.

§  Learn fire safety techniques and teach them to employees.

§  Make sure every floor and all working areas have smoke detectors.

During a forest fire event, the local or incident response manager should undertake the following simple activities to increase the protection of personnel and facilities:

§  Monitor local radio stations in order to understand where the fire is located, and which areas are affected by the downwind effects—in terms of smoke hazards as well as the direction in which the fire is moving.

§  Prepare personnel to evacuate along prescribed escape routes once the location and direction of travel are known.

§  Remove all outdoor furniture, tarps, and other combustible material from the facility exterior; these present a flammable hazard for jumping fire threats.

§  Close all doors in the facility; shut off gas valves and pilot lights; and remove flammable drapes, curtains, awnings, and other window coverings.

§  Keep lights on to aid visibility in case smoke fills the facility.

§  If sufficient water is available, turn sprinklers on to wet the roof and any waterproof valuables to reduce the risks of ignition.

§  Limit the time spent outdoors until conditions improve to avoid breathing in harmful smoke.

§  Turn off air exchange units that bring air in from the outside if they are worsening indoor air quality.

The IMP is designed to protect facilities from being susceptible to fire hazards during a forest fire crisis, as well as help determine the point at which personnel evacuate if the fire comes into immediate proximity of the facility. The guidance and instructions provided by government authorities should be followed at all times; however, companies can increase the levels of awareness and response to their employees during such events by developing simple and sensible response measures and protocols.

Hurricanes, Tornadoes and Volcanoes | Natural Risk

Hurricanes and Tornadoes

A hurricane is a type of tropical cyclone, which is a generic term for a low‐pressure system that generally forms in the tropics. It is an intense tropical weather system of strong thunderstorms with a well‐defined surface circulation and maximum sustained winds of 74 miles per hour (119 km/h) or greater. Sustained winds are defined as a one‐minute average wind speed measured at about 33 feet above the surface. Hurricanes are categorized according to the strength of their winds. A category 1 hurricane has the lowest wind speeds, while a category 5 hurricane has the strongest. These are relative terms, though, because lower‐category storms can sometimes inflict greater damage than higher‐category storms, depending on where they strike and the particular hazards they create. Tropical storms can also produce significant damage and loss of life, typically due to flooding.

A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that is in contact with both a cloud base and the surface on the earth. Tornadoes come in many sizes, but are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris. Most tornadoes have wind speeds of about 110 miles per hour, are approximately 250 feet (75 m) across, and travel a few miles before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), stretch more than a mile (1.6 km) across, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).

The IMP is designed to provide immediate response measures for company facilities and personnel to reduce the risks and impacts presented by hurricanes and tornadoes. Facilities located in areas with a history of severe weather conditions may install permanent storm shutters to offer protection for windows. Alternatively, boarding up windows offers an emergency solution. Surrounding trees and shrubs should be well trimmed to prevent debris from damaging the property or personnel, and loose and clogged rain gutters and downspouts should be cleared. The company may designate a safe room and stock such a facility with a disaster supply kit—water, nonperishable food, medications, and lighting.

During a hurricane or tornado, personnel should avoid windows, skylights, and glass doors, as debris and strong winds may shatter such structures. Personnel should move to a safe area, such as an interior office, a closet, or a bathroom on the lower level of the facility. In case of flooding, electricity should be turned off at the main circuit breaker. If the facility loses power, major appliances should be turned off, such as the air conditioner and water heaters, to reduce damage. Personnel should not leave a safe location when in the eye of a hurricane, but must wait until the storm has passed over, since there will be a short period of calm, followed by a rapid increase in wind speed from the opposite direction.

Following a hurricane or tornado, personnel should remain indoors until official notifications have been issued indicating that it is safe to leave the property. Personnel should be advised not to touch fallen or low‐hanging wires and to stay away from puddles with wires in or near them. Many of the same conditions resulting from floods or earthquakes will be prevalent, with weakened structures, contaminated water, and a loss of social infrastructures. The IMP should provide guidelines to local managers and incident response groups so that they can prepare for pending hurricane and tornado events, limit the danger to personnel and facilities during the crisis, and recover safely once the storm has passed to safe areas or emergency muster points designated by government authorities.

Volcanoes

A volcano is a mountain that opens downward to a reservoir of molten rock below the surface of the earth. When pressure from gases within the molten rock becomes too great, an eruption occurs. Eruptions can be either quiet or explosive; there may be lava flows, flattened landscapes, poisonous gases, and flying rock and ash. Because of their intense heat, lava flows create significant fire hazards and can destroy all structures in their paths. Typically, lava flows are slow moving, and personnel can move out of their way. Ash flows can occur on all sides of a volcano, and ash debris can fall hundreds of miles downwind of the volcano. Dangerous mudflows and floods can occur in valleys leading away from volcanoes, striking with little warning. Typically, mature crisis management plans are in place for projects operating within the shadow of a volcano. The IMP plays an important role in the first actions taken during an eruption, enabling personnel to deal with the common risks that accompany volcanic eruptions, including:

§  Earthquakes and tsunamis

§  Mudflows and flash floods

§  Landslides and rockfalls

§  Ashfall and acid rain

During a volcanic eruption, personnel should try to leave the affected area using an established evacuation plan (if advised by authorities), avoiding downwind areas and river valleys downstream of the volcano. If caught indoors, personnel should close all windows, doors, and dampers; put all machinery inside a garage or barn; and bring all animals and livestock into closed shelters. If personnel are outdoors, they should seek shelter indoors as quickly as possible. If subjected to ashfall, personnel should seek protection by wearing long‐sleeved shirts and long pants, goggles to protect vision, and a damp cloth to assist with breathing.

Following a volcanic eruption, personnel should stay out of an affected area, as the effects of a volcanic eruption can be experienced many miles from the main event, including mudflows, flash flooding, forest fires, and high‐temperature ash flows. When safe to do so, roofs should be cleared of ash, as it can result in structural collapse. The IMP should be designed to provide guidance if a volcanic eruption is imminent so as to enable managers to make the determination whether to evacuate or to remain in place, and help them reduce the possible risks associated with falling debris and other associated hazards. The employment of mature crisis response plans should quickly follow a volcanic eruption.

Earthquakes | Natural Risks

Earthquakes are caused by tectonic plate movements that make the ground shift or vibrate, resulting in fires, gas leaks, collapsed buildings, flooding due to ruptured pipes, damage to bridges and other structures, and the shattering of fragile or glass structures. Earthquakes can consist of a sequence of foreshocks and aftershocks. Commonly, public utilities and communications are disrupted by severe earthquakes, as are emergency services. The IMP is designed to address the immediate preparation for and response to an earthquake event, reducing the probability of injuries to personnel and damage to facilities.

Although some areas have government‐led risk management structures and protocols in place to identify pending earthquakes and respond to the subsequent hazards, there is typically only a few moments of warning to allow preparation. The initial response to a warning must therefore be well practiced and proven in order to be effective. Prior to the earthquake occurring, personnel should seek to secure all loose possessions, especially large, heavy, and breakable items. A safe location should have been identified as part of the contingency plan to accommodate personnel. If no such facility is available, personnel should seek refuge under sturdy tables or door frames. Where possible, gas supplies should be turned off and open flames should be quenched. If outside during the earthquake, personnel should drop to the ground and take cover until the shaking stops, covering their heads with their arms, and positioning themselves away from glass, windows, outside doors, and walls. Doorways should be used only if they are known to be strongly supported. If outdoors, personnel should be advised to stay outside and move away from buildings, streetlights, and utility wires until the shaking ceases. The greatest danger exists near building exits and alongside exterior walls. Personnel should be advised that the ground movement during an earthquake is seldom the direct cause of injury.

Personnel in a moving vehicle at the time of the earthquake should stop as quickly as safety permits and remain within the vehicle. Vehicles should not be stopped near buildings or under trees, overpasses, or utility wires. Once the shaking has ceased, vehicles can be used at slow speeds and with caution—avoiding roads, bridges, or ramps that might have been damaged by the earthquake. After an earthquake, aftershocks may occur, as well as secondary hazards such as fires, floods, explosions, or tsunamis. Personnel should be aware that gas leaks might result in fires and that many of the symptoms of floods and hurricanes will be prevalent. Any personnel trapped within collapsed buildings should not light a match or move about and disturb any dust or debris; rather, they should cover their mouths with handkerchiefs or clothing and tap on a pipe to assist rescuers in locating them. Personnel should shout only as a last resort, as shouting can cause them to inhale harmful materials and become exhausted. The IMP is designed to support local managers and the IRT leading up to and during the first effects of an earthquake, prior to crisis management structures and groups mobilizing.

Floods | Natural Risks

Flood effects may be limited to a local event affecting an individual community in a low‐lying area or adjacent to a river, or may be widespread, affecting entire river basins. Floods may occur in a matter of minutes (i.e., flash floods), or may develop slowly over a period of days. Flash floods often have a dangerous wall of water that carries rocks, mud, and other debris, can sweep away buildings, vehicles, and other structures in its path, and occur with little sign of the rainfall that initiated the event. Overland flooding occurs outside a defined river or stream, such as when a levee is breached. Overland flood effects can be limited, or can engulf an entire city resulting in catastrophic levels of devastation. Flooding can also occur when a dam breaks, or when water is channeled without warning along small streams, gullies, creeks, culverts, dry streambeds, wadis, or low‐lying ground that might appear harmless in dry weather.

Companies should ensure that weather warnings are tracked and local advisories regarding safe and unsafe areas are identified. Personnel should avoid dry riverbeds, low‐lying areas, and valleys during storms. Upon notification of a flood warning, managers should ensure that all electrical appliances, water, and supplies are moved above ground level. Where possible, water barricades should be constructed using sandbags against doorjambs and cracks, or around buildings and valuable materials. During a flood, personnel should avoid streams, drainage channels, canyons, and other areas known to flood suddenly. If flash flooding is a possibility, personnel should be moved immediately to higher ground or to the top level of a building. Managers should track radio and television broadcasts to stay abreast of the situation, and to listen for local emergency alerts or instructions if caught within a flood‐stricken area. You can post your status and requirements for emergency services using sheets, paint markings, or other indicators as to the number of personnel within a facility, any injuries that require treatment, and special assistance required.

If personnel need to leave a facility, they should not walk through more than six inches of moving water, as the water velocity can cause them to fall. In addition, moving water can disguise holes or hidden obstructions that could result in injury. If movement through water is necessary, still‐water areas should be selected and a stick should be used to check depth, identify holes, or discover underwater obstructions. Individuals or groups being evacuated should be tied to one another on a safety line and should be aware of the threats from power lines and debris hazards. Personnel should not attempt to drive vehicles through a flooded area if the water is higher than the bottom of the door, as such levels will likely cause the vehicle to stall or lose traction. One foot of water will float most vehicles, and two feet of rushing water can carry most vehicles downstream.

Once the initial effects of a flood have abated, the IRT should continue to monitor radio and television broadcasts to track secondary flood hazards as well as emergency response instructions. Special attention should be paid to whether water supplies have been contaminated and whether there has been damage to transportation and medical infrastructures. Personnel should avoid floodwaters, as water may be contaminated by oil, gasoline, raw sewage, or, in extreme cases, decaying carcasses. Water may also be electrically charged by underground or downed power lines. Personnel should also be wary of areas where floodwaters have receded; roads may be weakened and could collapse under the weight of a vehicle. Buildings also may have been structurally weakened and may collapse or have concealed threats. The IMP is designed to support incident managers during the initial stages of a flood, taking action to increase the safety of personnel, as well as the protection of critical infrastructures where possible.

Office, Facility, or Hotel Fires | Scope of Risk

Office, facility, or hotel fires can present unique risks depending on the operating region in which they occur. In some countries, firefighting equipment cannot reach above the third floor of a structure, presenting additional risks to the occupants. In addition, the safety standards in different countries vary, increasing the risks of fires rapidly spreading and not being brought under control by water sprinklers or other fire‐retardant appliances. For companies operating in high‐rise buildings, the ability of personnel to safely evacuate from the higher floors may also present challenges. Companies should develop pragmatic and rehearsed fire drills to ensure that personnel instinctively know how to respond to protect themselves during such a crisis event. Facilities may also have additional hazards that might be triggered by a fire, including combustible materials, toxic hazards, and serious structural risks that might occur. Personnel should also receive a fire briefing upon starting work at a new office complex, should understand where alarms are situated, and should also walk escape routes and be shown where muster points are located. The following provides simple measures by which personnel can increase the likelihood of a safe escape during a fire, thus supporting the IMP:

§  Review the floor plans of the office block, facility, or hotel; ask for a copy of the evacuation plan if available.

§  Locate nearby fire alarms and fire extinguishers.

§  Practice unlocking and opening the windows in your room or office. Look outside to see if you could escape without injury.

§  Learn the layout of your room, facility work area, or office floor, and know how to unlock your door in the dark. This will help prepare you for quick evacuation at night or during a power outage.

§  Place your room keys/office keys on a nightstand/desk where you can find them quickly. Take your room key/office key with you when you evacuate in case emergency exits are blocked by fire and you must return to your room/office.

§  Sound the fire alarm and alert neighbors and other workers on your floor of the emergency.

§  Close doors behind you to prevent the spread of flames within the office space, work area, or hotel floor.

§  Walk to safety via the nearest fire exit. If you encounter smoke en route, crouch or crawl low to the ground. Do not stand up, as you may be overcome by the smoke or toxic fumes.

§  Feel any doors with the back of your hand. If the door feels unusually warm or hot, do not open it—the fire may be right outside. If the door is not warm or hot, open it slowly. Be prepared to close the door quickly if smoke rushes in.

§  Once you are safe from danger, locate the nearest phone and inform the front desk, hotel, or switchboard operator of the emergency.

§  If trapped and the phone works, call the hotel or switchboard operator—explain that you are trapped in your room or office and are in need of rescue.

§  If trapped, fill a bathtub or sink (if available) with water and wet your towels and sheets. You may also use water to cool the walls; use a wastebasket or ice bucket to help bail water. Use a restroom if a bathtub or sink is unavailable.

§  To seal the room/office doorway from smoke, put wet towels or sheets at the bottom of the door. If you have wide duct tape, seal the entire doorjamb. Stuff any vents with wet towels or sheets, or tape a magazine over each vent to prevent smoke from entering.

§  Make your location more visible to firefighters; hang a sheet out the window. Do not use the sheet to climb down from your room or office.

§  If smoke enters the room, use a blanket or sheet to make a tent over your head, put your covered head out the window, and breathe clean air. If your window does not open, you may have to break it with a chair or drawer. Break the window only as a last resort.

§  If smoke can enter your room/office from outside, close the window immediately and keep it closed. Make this observation before breaking a window.

§  Do not take the elevator; if you attempt to take the elevator in a fire, you may become trapped. The elevator may also take you to the floor where the fire is. Use the stairs to walk to the bottom floor of the hotel, office, or facility. Hold on to the handrail as you go so as not to be knocked down by someone behind you, or by the impact of any explosions that might occur.

§  If you encounter smoke or fire on lower levels, return to your room/office. Call the hotel or facility switchboard operator and explain that you are trapped.

§  If you cannot make it back to your room/office, walk to a floor with clearer air and attempt to find another emergency exit. As a last resort, climb the stairs to the roof.

Companies should provide fire briefings to staff to support the IMP, which allows local managers more time to focus on quickly gathering information to assist the safe evacuation of personnel, as well as a more effective response by emergency services rather than herding staff to exits. The IMP element should focus on determining the location and nature of the fire, extracting personnel from danger, and notifying any emergency responders of the situation and details. The following elements should be considered by company first responders and incident managers during an office, facility, or hotel fire:

§  Nature, Location, and Extent.: What type of fire is it? Are there additional hazards such as toxic chemicals, explosive materials, or other contaminants that emergency responders need to be aware of? Where is the fire? Is it contained, or has it spread?

§  Fire Response Measures.: What measures are in place to deal with the fire (e.g., sprinklers, fire‐suppressing gases, fire doors)? How do they operate? Are they working?

§  Additional Risk Areas.: Are any areas particularly at risk from the fire? What impacts will the fire have if it reaches those areas (e.g., explosive, toxic, structural dangers, risks to personnel)?

§  Mustered Personnel.: Have all personnel been accounted for? Where are they? Where are the emergency muster points?

§  Missing or Trapped Personnel.: How many personnel have not been accounted for? Are any personnel trapped? If so, where?

§  Casualties.: Are there injuries? If so, how many? What is the status and severity of the casualties?

§  Materials.: Is there any sensitive, high‐value, or critical material or information that needs to be retrieved? Where is it located? What is the nature of the material? What value is placed against it, and what are the impacts if it is lost?

The emergency services will typically quickly take control of a crisis situation on arrival in most countries; however, local managers will have a better understanding as to the situation when firefighters arrive and can provide a quick, accurate, and focused briefing to enable responders to more effectively take control of a situation. Local managers will also better understand out‐of‐the‐norm factors such as toxic or combustible material hazards, as well as the number, status, and location of personnel. The IMP should be considered a bridging tool between the company and emergency responders, supporting the transfer of response to external agencies.